What Is Plasma and What Is It Used For

Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter. The other fundamental states of matter are liquids, solids,  and gases. Typically, plasma is made by heating a gas until its electrons have sufficient energy to escape the hold of the positively charged nuclei. As molecular bonds break and atoms gain or lose electrons, ions form. Plasma can be made using a laser, microwave generator, or any strong electromagnetic field. Although you may not hear much about plasma, it is the most common prevalent state of matter in the universe and it relatively common on Earth. What Is Plasma Made Of? Plasma is made  of free electrons  and positively charged ions (cations). Properties of Plasma Because plasma consists of charged particles, plasma reacts to electromagnetic fields and conducts electricity. In contrast, most gases are electrical insulators.Like a gas, plasma has neither a defined shape nor volume.When plasma is exposed to a magnetic field, it may assume structures, including layers, filaments, and beams. A good example of some of these structures can be observed in a plasma ball. What Is Plasma Used For? Plasma is used in television, neon signs and fluorescent lights. Stars, lightning, the Aurora,  and some flames consist of plasma. Where Can You Find Plasma? You probably encounter plasma more often than you think. More exotic sources of plasma include particles in nuclear fusion reactors and weapons, but everyday sources include the Sun, lightning, fire, and neon signs. Other examples of plasma include static electricity, plasma balls, St. Elmos fire, and the ionosphere.

International Business Term Paper ( Draft ) - 1327 Words

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS TERM PAPER (DRAFT) Globalization is a process that permitted the world’s nations to strengthen their relationships and to get closer each other when they built commercial, economic financial and other types of relationships. Globalization contributed to the connectedness of countries’ economies and to some degree countries’ cultures. Canada is one the countries that benefits of the effects of globalization. Our paper will focus on the investments opportunities and advantages for U.S business in Canada as investors, focal firm or born global firms. (COUNTRY BACKGROUND) Canada is a country located in North America. Canada has a terrestrial border with only the United States and is bordered by the North Atlantic Ocean in the east, North Pacific Ocean in the west and Artic Ocean in the north (www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook). The country is composed of ten provinces and has three territories. It is a country that is larger a little bit larger than United States. Canada is one the biggest country in the world in the world with its 9,984,670 sq. km. Canada has a population size of 34,834,841 inhabitants and the most important part of this population is the 25-54 years. The country has also a good migrant rate and which can explain in part the size of its population. The governmental system is characterized by three principal features: a parliamentary democracy, a federation, and a constitutional monarchy. The country is leaded by a prime ministerShow MoreRelatedFuture Impact Of Iso 45001- Health And Safety Management System On Workplace1674 Words   |  7 Pages 4. Research papers on ISO 45001 5. Information for ISO 45001 Abstract: ISO 45001 is a New International Standard for Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems. 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The Purposes of the Three Witches in Macbeth Free Essays

The Purposes of the Three Witches in Macbeth Macbeth is a symbolic story of how people can be easily influenced. In the beginning of the play, Macbeth meets the three witches and hears about his prophecy from them which he will become the next King of Scotland. These witches are important characters to develop the story. We will write a custom essay sample on The Purposes of the Three Witches in Macbeth or any similar topic only for you Order Now Every time when Macbeth needed them, he received prophecies from them. These prophecies affect Macbeth and reveal his evil personality. As revealed in the play, the purposes of the three witches in the play are to foreshadow, advance the plot, and show the human weakness. One of the purposes of the witches in the play is to set allusions. In the beginning of act one scene one, the three witches plan? to meet at the open field to see Macbeth after the battle is over. As they promised, they wait for Macbeth and Banquo to return from the battlefield. When they faced each other, the third witch said, â€Å"All hail, Macbeth, that shalt be king hereafter†(Macbeth 1. 3. 51) to Macbeth. Then the first witch tells Banquo that, â€Å"Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none/ So all hail, Macbeth and Banquo! †(Macbeth 1. 3. 8-69), which she meant that Banquo will become the father of the kings. Later in the story, Macbeth seeks for the three witches to hear more about his future. They told him that â€Å"Be bloody, bold, and resolute. Laugh to scorn/ The power of man, for none of woman born/ Shall harm Macbeth. †(Macbeth 4. 1 81-83). These prophecies eventually become true. There are no doubts that the tree witches allure the story by tell ing the futures. The weird witches not only foreshadow but also advance the story. The story mainly develops by the prophecies. After Macbeth hears about his future from the witches, he writes a letter to Lady Macbeth, his wife, about the prophecy. Since Lady Macbeth had no doubt about this prophecy of Macbeth becoming the king, she plans to assassinate the King Duncan to fulfill the prophecy. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth put their plan into action. Successfully, Macbeth killed the king and put false charge on Malcolm and Donalbain for assassinating the king to become sovereign. As a result, Macbeth took the next throne of the Scotland. While he rules Scotland with insanity, Malcolm seeks for revenge and makes an army to fight against Macbeth. With a growing fear in Macbeth’s heart, he goes to find the three witches again to receive another prophecy. He gets told that no men who came through a woman’s womb could harm him. He scoffs and eases his fear of death. However towards the end of the play, he faces death by Macduff, who was delivered by cesarean section. By giving prophecies, the witches indirectly affect the play to create tensions. The play of Macbeth clearly showed the human weakness. The witches did not force Macbeth to kill the king or to commit any crimes. Macbeth was a loyal general of King Duncan along with Banquo. However, after he hears the words from the three weird sisters, he had a conversation with Banquo about what they heard and he says, â€Å"My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical,/ Shakes so my single state of man/ That function is smothered in surmise,/ And nothing is but what is not† (Macbeth 1. . 142- 145). From this conversation, his personality was revealed which he is a man who would not kill the king to attain his ambition. However, Macbeth eventually gets affected by the prophecy that he shows his ambitions toward the kingship and his evil personality. His influenced aspect is clearly shown when the second witch notes, that â€Å"By the pricking of my thumbs,/ something wicked this way comes† (Macbeth 4. 1. 44-45). From this quote, it shows that Macbeth’s pe rsonality became evil. The purposes of the witches are not only to develop the story but also to show that people are easily influenced. The weird sisters, the three witches, in the play do not advent often but have essential roles. They give prophecy to Macbeth which creates ambition in his heart. They are the main element that creates the consequences in the play. Their role in the story gave Macbeth a thought that they know he would expand on and reveal his human weakness. Work Cited Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. New York: Signet Classic, 1987. Print How to cite The Purposes of the Three Witches in Macbeth, Papers

Analytic Hierarchy Process

Question: Discuss about the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Answer: Introduction Nursing is a profession, where the professionals have to focus on the health and well-being of the care givers, experiencing any kind of health related issues. In the nursing profession, professionals have to deal with patients, in long-term care for severe injury or disorder. In long-term care, different kind of patients attitudes is experienced by the professionals, which sometimes enhances nurses burnout. There are several reasons behind patients changed attitudes towards the medical staffs (1), (8). In case of patients experiencing fracture, pain is pivotal cause of changed attitude. In this research, the aim is to explore the attitude of patients in long-term care centre, who are living with fracture. With the help of this research findings, nursing professionals would be able to gain an insight of the ways, by which patients attitude can be improved. Research Aim The aim of this research is to explore the patients attitude in long-term hospital stay, living with fracture. Research question What are the attitudes of patient with fracture with long stay in the hospital? What are the factors that are influencing patients attitude in long-term hospital stay? What are the recommendations towards nurses to improve patients attitude, who are living with fracture, in long-term care? Literature Review It has been observed in the hospitals, that patients, who have experienced a severe bone fracture, stayed in hospital for longer period, it is because, recovery from bone fracture is usually time-consuming process. In elderly patients, the due to low calcium concentration and low bone mineral density, this process becomes slower. Due to long-term hospital stay, patients show changed attitude towards the nursing and other medical professionals (2), (4). It has been observed that, long-term hospital stay has several negative consequences, including co-morbidities and wound infections, worsening their health status. In a study, interviewing patients with hip fracture, in a long-term hospital care; four main themes were identified related to their hospital stay and rehabilitation, these include experience of injury, pain experience, recovery experience and the disability experience (3), (5). For instance, if a patient undergoes a hips fracture, until sole recovery, the patient experience loss of independence and disability, which induces stress related symptoms, sometimes, lead to depression and anxiety. The results include changed perception about hospital stay, recovery and nurses practices. One of the major reason behind nurses burnout and depression, while working with long term care patient is their changed behaviors towards the care givers (4). The changed attitude of the long-term patients includes negative perception about the care providers, loss of self-esteem and changed behavior towards other patients and nurses. In this study, when patients were asked about their experience in hospital stay, some of them replied that, it would be better than anything would, if they can go home. It indicates that, with longer- period of hospital stay, patients perception changes, which promote their negative attitude towards the heath care staffs (6), (7). In a study, interviewing the patients undergoing hip fracture and surgery, it has been revealed that the mean age of the patients in the long-term hospital stay is 80 years and they are very much concern about their recovery and self-independence. To understand the attitudes of patients, the immediate expectations of patients should be understood. The immediate expectations off the patients with hip fracture included expression of despair and discouragement, perception of the fact t hat the fracture is going to take a longer period of recovery, change in living situation with the threat of permanent loss of independent living (9). In this context, the factors that are influencing the attitude of long-term patient with fracture, include, patients age, non-friendly environment in the hospital, loss of independence, severity of pain, social isolation, lack of awareness about the recovery process and the pros and cons of their health status, perception of being vulnerable to be abuse and dependent on others, thoughts of uncertain future (12). It has been seen that due to lack of awareness, isolation and frustration regarding their loss of independence and isolation, patients become depressed, agitated and aggressive sometimes, which promote their negative behavior. It has several negative consequences; for instance, it influences the attitude of neighboring patients and makes it difficult for the staffs, to handle them peacefully (10). Methodology The research will be done by following primary research methodology. A primary research methodology will help the researcher to collect primary empirical data, which can be analyzed with the previous literatures on this topic (7). Here, the research would undertake a descriptive research design with mixed method of data collection. The primary data would be collected by surveying 30 patients, experiencing long-term hospital stay as a result of fracture. From the survey, quantitative data would be gathered about the patients experience during their hospital stay. On the other hand, 5 nurse managers would be interviewed for collecting qualitative data about the long-term patients attitude towards the health care processes. The random and non-random data sampling methods would be implemented for sampling the quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The research would be conducted by following the Data protection act 1998, for considering potential ethical issues during the resear ch study. Result and Discussion The primary data would be analyzed on the basis of the information revealed by reviewing the previous literatures on this topic. Expected results include negative perception about long-term hospital stay, wrong perception about nurses practices, worsening of health status, due to negative attitude and perception (11). Negative attitude of patients may enhance nurses depression and burnout. Strategies for overcoming this issue and reducing patients negative attitude would be found through the research findings. Conclusion This study findings would involve the scope of further studies in the domain of improving patients attitude towards nurses, who are in long-term hospital stay or the coping strategies of nurses for handling patients in long-term care, with severe pain due to fracture. The research findings could be used by the health care professionals for developing strategies of dealing improving relationship with long-term care patients, with disabilities. Reference List Ambrosino N, Venturelli E, Vagheggini G, Clini E. Rehabilitation, weaning and physical therapy strategies in chronic critically ill patients. European Respiratory Journal. 2012 Feb 1;39(2):487-92. Cecconi M, Fasano N, Langiano N, Divella M, Costa MG, Rhodes A, Della Rocca G. Goal-directed haemodynamic therapy during elective total hip arthroplasty under regional anaesthesia. Critical Care. 2011 May 30;15(3):1. Danner M, Hummel JM, Volz F, van Manen JG, Wiegard B, Dintsios CM, Bastian H, Gerber A, IJzerman MJ. Integrating patients' views into health technology assessment: Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) as a method to elicit patient preferences. International journal of technology assessment in health care. 2011 Oct1;27(04):369-75. Goroll AH, Mulley AG. Primary care medicine: office evaluation and management of the adult patient. Lippincott Williams Wilkins; 2012 Mar 28. Hommel A, Kock ML, Persson J, Werntoft E. The Patient's View of Nursing Care after Hip Fracture. ISRN nursing. 2012 Jul 3;2012. Horne R, Chapman SC, Parham R, Freemantle N, Forbes A, Cooper V. Understanding patients adherence-related beliefs about medicines prescribed for long-term conditions: a meta-analytic review of the Necessity-Concerns Framework. PloS one. 2013 Dec 2;8(12):e80633. Iwashyna TJ, Netzer G, Langa KM, Cigolle C. Spurious Inferences about Long-Term Outcomes. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine. 2012 Dec 14. Iwashyna TJ, Netzer G. The burdens of survivorship: an approach to thinking about long-term outcomes after critical illness. InSeminars in respiratory and critical care medicine 2012 Aug (Vol. 33, No. 04, pp. 327-338). Thieme Medical Publishers. Lgar F, Witteman HO. Shared decision making: examining key elements and barriers to adoption into routine clinical practice. Health Affairs. 2013 Feb 1;32(2):276-84. Mack JW, Smith TJ. Reasons why physicians do not have discussions about poor prognosis, why it matters, and what can be improved. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2012 Aug 1;30(22):2715-7. Neuhaus V, Swellengrebel CH, Bossen JK, Ring D. What are the factors influencing outcome among patients admitted to a hospital with a proximal humeral fracture?. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. 2013 May 1;471(5):1698-706. Young HM, Hudson N, Clarke AL, Dungey M, Feehally J, Burton JO, Smith AC. Patient and staff perceptions of intradialytic exercise before and after implementation: a qualitative study. PloS one. 2015 Jun 12;10(6):e0128995.

How to write a essay free essay sample

Getting into college could be as easy as memorizing the alphabet just like a preschooler. But, getting into college with a scholarship is a whole different thing. From the thousands of college applicants aiming for a scholarship, how will you make your essay application stand out? There are millions of essay examples over the internet but, you need to come up with an essay that will get you that scholarship. Tips on How to Write a Good Scholarship Essay: 1. Read instructions carefully College application can become a common thing for you. You might actually get the feeling of doing the same thing over and over like answering the same question for the nth number of times. No matter how similar college applications are, you have to read and understand the instructions well. If you want to land on a good school for college with a scholarship, everything starts with reading and comprehending the instructions. We will write a custom essay sample on How to write a essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 2. Organize your thoughts After reading the instructions, it’s time to line up your thoughts to make an effective essay that will get you that scholarship. Look for essay samples on the internet or in books. Have a sort of survey from resources that will help you fill in the contents of your essay. It is difficult to start writing an essay,   but with organized ideas, you can do it efficiently and effectively. 3. Make an outline When you get a general idea of the essay contents, you can now make an outline of specific details that will be included in your composition. Essay examples usually present general ideas down to the specific. Having an outline is very helpful to keep your essay consistent and focused on a particular topic. 4. Discuss every topic based on the instruction Paying attention to details or instructions is actually part of writing the essay for a scholarship application. Make sure that every topic asked in the essay questions is discussed in the whole composition. Remember that you only have one chance of writing an essay that will make a lasting impression on your college application. 5. Use simple language format and make sure your grammar is perfect Do not try to impress readers of your essay. Even if you are in college, you are not expected to use highfaluting words, but rather make your sentences simple and clear. No matter how technical your vocabulary is but poor grammar is an indication of a lousy essay. 6. Avoid bragging about your achievements Although it is important that you include your achievements as this will help your scholarship application, however you only need to do this if you are asked to do so. Avoid bragging, instead,   talk about your achievements simply. It is also good to include the lessons you have learned in gaining such success. 7. Have someone edit and check your work To ensure that you are submitting an essay that will get you the scholarship, have an expert check your work. An editor or a previous professor can help you improve and validate how excellent or poor your essay is. Essay Writing First paragraph — Introduction The first paragraph is essential in capturing the attention of your readers. It is called an introduction as it gives an overview of what your essay is all about. The first paragraph should   be similar to an â€Å"About Me† part of a reading material. Make it as simple as possible and dynamically connected to your next point. Second Paragraph – Important Details The second paragraph should support your introduction. This section includes more detail and usually the start of elaboration for every point or question. Say for example, state reasons why you should qualify for the scholarship; state your accomplishments; why are you choosing a particular course and the like. Third paragraph – Future Goals The third paragraph should speak of your future goals and your vision after pursuing a college degree. Goals have to be specific, and should reflect an action plan after your college graduation. Fourth paragraph –   The Best Candidate End your essay by stating reasons why you are the best candidate to be chosen for the scholarship. State two to three main points from the previous paragraphs. Do not forget to note your appreciation for the readers of your essay for taking the time to read your essay. Composing your ideas and putting them in writing is never easy. It can be stressful and puts on a lot of pressure, especially when your future depends on this essay for a scholarship grant. There are many essay examples you can find on the web today.

Free Essays on Conflict Resolution In Work Teams

Throughout our lives we are all exposed to work in teams such as participating in team sports like basketball, baseball, soccer, etc. Each and every one of these athletic activities or sports requires the interaction of all members of the team in order to achieve a common goal, in this case victory. The interaction that results in the efforts of a group of people working together towards a common goal provides each member with the sense that they belong to the group and the results produced by their group must be considered as good or positive. Working in teams offers the business the same opportunities that the team sports bring to the members of the team as well as the team itself. This provides businesses to obtain more and better results from employees while maintaining a good level of job satisfaction from the employees. Based on the What is Teamwork? (Biech, E. 2002), working in teams presents the following 12 benefits: More input leads to better ideas and decisions, Higher quality output, Involvement of everyone in the process, Increased ownership and buy-in by members, Higher likelihood of implementation of new ideas, Widens the circle of communication, Shared information means increased learning, Increased understanding of other people’s perspectives, Increased opportunity to draw on individual strengths, Ability to compensate for individual weaknesses, and Provides a sense of security and Develops personal relationships. Each and every one of these benefits provides opportunities for greater effectiveness at work thus directly benefiting the business. In the other hand, there are 12 disadvantages that working in teams bring. These are: Requires more time, Can lead to many meetings, Often difficult to schedule mutual time, requires individual to give more of themselves, May take longer to make a decision, May be used as an excuse for a lack of individual performance, Personality conflicts are magnified, Disagreements ca... Free Essays on Conflict Resolution In Work Teams Free Essays on Conflict Resolution In Work Teams Throughout our lives we are all exposed to work in teams such as participating in team sports like basketball, baseball, soccer, etc. Each and every one of these athletic activities or sports requires the interaction of all members of the team in order to achieve a common goal, in this case victory. The interaction that results in the efforts of a group of people working together towards a common goal provides each member with the sense that they belong to the group and the results produced by their group must be considered as good or positive. Working in teams offers the business the same opportunities that the team sports bring to the members of the team as well as the team itself. This provides businesses to obtain more and better results from employees while maintaining a good level of job satisfaction from the employees. Based on the What is Teamwork? (Biech, E. 2002), working in teams presents the following 12 benefits: More input leads to better ideas and decisions, Higher quality output, Involvement of everyone in the process, Increased ownership and buy-in by members, Higher likelihood of implementation of new ideas, Widens the circle of communication, Shared information means increased learning, Increased understanding of other people’s perspectives, Increased opportunity to draw on individual strengths, Ability to compensate for individual weaknesses, and Provides a sense of security and Develops personal relationships. Each and every one of these benefits provides opportunities for greater effectiveness at work thus directly benefiting the business. In the other hand, there are 12 disadvantages that working in teams bring. These are: Requires more time, Can lead to many meetings, Often difficult to schedule mutual time, requires individual to give more of themselves, May take longer to make a decision, May be used as an excuse for a lack of individual performance, Personality conflicts are magnified, Disagreements ca...

Sociology. Describe and evaluate the influence of CLASS on life Essay

Sociology. Describe and evaluate the influence of CLASS on life chances in Britain - Essay Example Class analysis can be broadly defined as ‘the empirical investigation of the consequences and corollaries of the existence of a class structure defined ex-ante† (Breen & Rottman, 1995, 453). Based on a definition, the sociologist then finds out the extent to which differences in life style and life chances amongst individuals are formatted according to the class structure, as is perceived within the concerned society. Life chances within a social stratification are dependent on many external factors. These are: â€Å"health, income and wealth; education; life expectancy; infant mortality; housing; consumer goods ownership; access to leisure† (Sociology intermediate 1 and 2, 2006, 16). The presence of classes within the UK social structure was brought into prominence in 1980, after the publication of the Black Report, which showed that there were large differences in the mortality rates amongst the British working classes. It highlighted the fact that inequalities within the UK social structure were very much present. The report dispersed the myth, and the utopian feeling that was so prevalent amongst the pre-80s British mindset, which believed that UK was moving towards becoming an egalitarian society, where class divisions and inequalities based on socio-economic factors did not play much role. In this article I will take up this concept of ‘class’ and examine it from various perspectives (social theories), while analysing the various common notions and annotations associated with the term class. The outward manifestation of the disparity in social classes, like the ‘economic standing (wealth and income), prestige, and power’ will be di scussed, along with the various factors that come under the purview of life chances, which are dependent on this ‘class’ aspect; all the time keeping in view and focussing on the social conditions of UK, as is prevalent in today’s context. What is

Marketing Plan for Crystal Pepsi Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing Plan for Crystal Pepsi - Term Paper Example PepsiCo was founded in 1965 following a merger between Pepsi-Cola and Frito-Lay. Its motto is ‘Something for everyone’. The company operates in over 200 countries across the globe and generates sizeable net sales annually. Crystal Pepsi was first introduced in 1992 but was withdrawn by the end of 1993 due to very low sales. However, it is possible to re-launch the product through intensive marketing activities and flavor changes.The company’s first priority is to build and manage its brand through the yet to be established Brand Charter. Above all, the company needs to increase its marketing endeavors to be able to compete effectively with the giants in the industry. The company intends to generate over $1.78 billion in net sales before the end of 2015 from Crystal Pepsi by investing about $850 million in marketing endeavors within the next three years, ending 2015.The mother of PepsiCo was Pepsi Cola Company, which was founded in 1898 in North Carolina. In 1965, PepsiCo was formed following a merger between Pepsi-Cola and Frito-Lay. PepsiCo motto is ‘Something for everyone’, a statement that perpetuates consumer inclusion. The company produces assorted beverages and snacks, which are sold in over 200 countries across the globe. PepsiCo generated net sales of $66.5 billion and $57.8 billion in 2011 and 2010 respectively. 1.2 Past Crystal Pepsi.The introduction of Crystal Pepsi in 1992 was informed by health concerns, especially increasing levels of obesity. As a result, PepsiCo promised its customers and consumers that it will use healthy ingredients to produce products and provide health benefits in its products. Since its inception on 12th April 1992, Crystal Pepsi had been perceived as a fad because it failed to deliver its value propositions to its consumers (Susan 53). In addition, its name was controversial, especially when connected with the brand Pepsi known to many for its coke products, which are considered to contain caffeine and caramel. In fact, it tasted like coke though colorless thus confusing the consumers. As a result, its sales momentum faded in 1993 and it was thus discontinued. 1.3 Strategic Opportunity Most people are becoming health conscious, therefore, there is need to provide products that meet their needs. According to PepsiCo Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Ms. Nooyi, PepsiC o need to be refocused to accommodate emerging needs of health conscious consumers. In response to this need, the company continues to invest to grow its nutritional business from $10 billion to $30 billion in annualized sales by end of 2030. Again, PepsiCo needs to advertise more. Unlike, Coca- Cola Company whose products are featured regularly in most advertising, PepsiCo brands appear less in commercials. As a result, Coca cola and diet coke are brands that rank first and second before any Pepsi product because it spends more on advertising. If PepsiCo positions itself properly, it will gain from 14.5% growth expected to be experienced in the industry by the end of 2016 to reach annualized sales of $222.7 billion (Market-Line 22-26). 1.4 Objectives 1. To sell over 407.6 million litres of Crystal Pepsi and generate about $400 million from North America, Canada, China and Middle East regions by 31st December 2013 2. To sell over 611.4 million litres of

Chilrdens Books Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chilrdens Books - Essay Example However over the last two decades quite a few major changes have come into the social structure and more specifically, the family unit. Statistics show that in contrast to the 80s and 90s more that 60% of all children in the United States today have working mothers and the number of mothers in even a two parent family who are employed went up by close on to 40%. Currently around 27% of all children come from families with a single parent and one in every three births in the United States is out of wedlock. This along with new light thrown on methods of helping children to maximize their cognitive skills, has lead to dramatic shifts in education for children, and books which are written and published with children and young adults as the target group. A radical change came about both in the form and content of books as the emphasis shifted from parent or teacher-directed, to student-directed reading and learning. The intention behind this was that children should develop their own understanding and imagination, not by being exposed to facts in isolation, but by having their curiosity aroused without any external stimulus in the form of rewards. Other factors which have begun to be taken into consideration while promoting books for children are multi ethnicity, sex, including gay and lesbian fiction for children and young adults, and books which

Understanding Human Behaviour through Reductionist Approach

Understanding Human Behaviour through Reductionist Approach â€Å"The only way to understand Human Behaviour is to take a Reductionist approach.† Critically discuss with reference to relevant seminal and contemporary literature in psychology. Reductionism can be defined as being the idea that a complex system, such as human behaviour, is nothing more than the sum of its parts and that a description of the system can be reduced to descriptions of the individual components. Many of the main approaches in psychology tend to take a reductionist approach when trying to explain their understanding of human behaviour, including the cognitive approach which uses machine mechanism (using the analogy of machines and their most simple components) to explain human behaviour, such as Berkowitz (1993). The behaviourist approach also tends to be reductionist in how it tries to explain human behaviour, usually reducing behaviour down to simply environmental factors such as reinforcement and punishment. Perhaps the most reductionist approach in psychology however is the biological approach. The biological approach takes a more scientific approach to explaining human behaviour and puts it mainly down to our biology, for example, Lacourse, Boivin, Brendgen et al. (2014) explained that the results from their research suggested that a toddler’s aggression is strongly associated with genetic factors. Many psychologists would agree that â€Å"The only way to understand Human Behaviour is to take a Reductionist approach† for example, Hull (2002) who stated that â€Å"Reductionism at its most extreme asserts that the only level worth investigating is the lowest technologically feasible level. All else is a waste of time.† Given the fact that scientists who use more reductionist approaches to understanding human behaviour tend to get the most grant money for their research, publish the most papers and also tend to make the most scientific advances within psychology, this may be true. However, other psychologists believe that the lower states involved in reductionism do not capture the necessary coherence of the rationalisation relation at the higher level and are known as being anti-reductionist. Biological psychologists explain human behaviour by trying to relate it to the functioning of the brain and the nervous system, relating it to the role of genetic influences and also by putting it down to chemical processes in the brain. These are all reductionist ways to explaining human behaviour due to the fact that, apart from physics, they are the lowest level of explaining behaviour. A prime example of a reductionist explanation to understanding human behaviour such as aggression is through genetics. This type of biological reductionism reduces aggressive behaviour in an individual down to the role of genetic influence, for example Dilalla (2002) concluded from her review on the role of genetics on aggression that there is a â€Å"growing body of evidence on the genetic effects on aggression† with â€Å"the majority of twin and adoption studies on antisocial behaviour in children suggest that genetic effects are important influences† suggesting that aggressive beh aviour is mainly due to the genetic make-up of an individual. This explanation of aggressive human behaviour is solely reductionist and fails to take into account any environmental and cultural factors. The social approach to psychology however, would explain this behaviour through â€Å"The Social Learning Theory† by Bandura (1978), putting aggressive behaviour of a child down to factors such as imitation. Bushman Huesmann (2006) explored aggression in both children and adults, and found that exposure to violence led to participants becoming more aggressive, suggesting that human behaviour such as aggression can be adopted through imitation, leading one to believe that reductionist approaches to human behaviour, such as the biological approach isn’t taking every factor into account that could contribute towards an individual’s behaviour. Reducing human behaviour down to lower levels of psychology that can be studied is useful in trying to understand how things work. Poldrack Wagner (2008) used Atinkson Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model of memory in order to assess long-term and short-term memory. This cognitive approach to understanding human behaviour, suggested that remembering information over either the long-term or short-term was due to how we process this information internally. Reducing this behaviour down to a simple component of the individual means that, for example if an individual has long-term memory loss, it is easier to target one specific part of the brain responsible for this, thus easier to treat. However, even though this is a useful aspect of reductionist explanations of human behaviour, some psychologists, such as Hull, would argue that these explanations offer only a simple solution to a much more complicated problem. Depression, for example, according to the biological approach shoul d be treated with anti-depressants as biological psychologists such as Carlson (2005) believe that depression is due to neurotransmitters in the brain. However, social psychologists such as Beattie (2005), who examined the social causes of depression, would say that this is overlooking the real problem which could be issues such as problems within the family. This is a fundamental problem with the reductionist approach to understanding human behaviour; it tends to ignore social and environmental factors that may also contribute towards behaviour and hence when it comes to applying reductionist approaches to everyday life and having implications for human behaviour, the treatments may not be as reliable as they could be. Although there are arguments for â€Å"The only way to understand Human Behaviour is to take a Reductionist approach† there are a lot more anti-reductionist arguments. Anti-reductionist psychologists such as Hull Regenmortel (2002) refer to reductionism in explaining human behaviour as â€Å"as successful as Reductionism has been, it is seriously inadequate and must be supplemented with a more holistic science.† Emotion, for example, is ignored by reductionist explanations due to the fact that it is seen as impossible that an individual’s emotions can be explained through lower levels of psychology, such as neurotransmitters. Thus, factors such as emotion can only be truly explained by less reductionist approaches such as an individual is happy due to the environment that surrounds them, not due to biological factors. A further approach to understanding human behaviour is taking into account the role of the environment. Reductionist biological approaches do not consider the environment when explaining human behaviour, however there is a lot of research suggesting that although an individual is born with certain biological traits, such as genes, environmental factors, for example an individual’s upbringing and people they are exposed to predominately shapes an individual’s behaviour further. However, taking an environmental approach to understanding human behaviour is also reductionist, but psychologists specialising in this area such as Brent are starting to integrate the small parts into the whole. In 1995, Brent assessed risk factors for adolescent suicide and suicidal behaviour and stressed the importance of environmental factors such as family, as well as biological factors on these risk factors. Taking a more holistic approach like Brent (2005) instead of a reductionist approach to understanding human behaviour tends to take many factors into account instead of just reducing an explanation down to its simplest form, thus can lead people to believe that a more holistic approach to understanding human behaviour is a lot more valid and reliable as, for example, when treating an individual of an illness such as depression, not only will the biological aspect of the illness be treated with anti-depressants, but the social aspect of the illness can also be treated with a form of counselling. Using a reductionist approach to understanding human behaviour can be seen to be not so useful when trying to explain individual factors due to the fact that reductionist explanations, although they are reduced to the lowest levels of psychology and thus are in the simplest form, generalise behaviour to a target population. Maguire, Gadian, Johnsrude et al. (2000) found that the amount of time spent as a London taxi driver positively correlated with the volume in the posterior hippocampus and from this, suggested that â€Å"the posterior hippocampus stores a spatial representation of the environment and can expand regionally to accommodate.† Here, Maguire et al (2000) have generalised their study of male, London taxi drivers to the population as a whole. Every individual is unique and so it would not be right to generalise these findings to everyone as the same behaviour in people may be due to different explanations, such as our biology and the environment. In conclusion reductionist approaches to understanding human behaviour can be seen to have led to further scientific advances within psychology due to the fact that reductionist approaches make it easier to find the cause of human behaviour, meaning that it is then easier to treat, by reducing the explanation down to its simplest form. However, as discussed, there are many problems and critiques of the reductionist approach to understanding human behaviour, with the main problem being that the reductionist approaches leave out vital factors such as the environment and social factors when explaining behaviour, thus by using a reductionist explanation it does not give a full explanation for a complex subject such as human behaviour, whereas taking a more holistic approach such as a humanist approach, takes many different factors into account. Therefore, reductionist explanations, is limited when it comes to understanding and explaining human behaviour. Samantha Carlisle

Lovers :: Personal Narrative Sex Relationships Essays

Lovers My mother went to Barnard on a full scholarship. She commuted from home, two hours a day on the subway. One night after a Columbia party, she was up a ladder taking down crepe paper when an orange hit her on the back of the head. It thumped to the ground and rolled under a stool, where my father knelt to retrieve it. He tossed the orange across the room to a friend — his intended target — and offered my mother his hand. In my version, she shakes off his attempts to help her down from the ladder. Does not speak to him for months because she’s so offended at being hit on the back of the head with the orange. Looks the other way when he passes on the street. Starts dating his roommate. In my version, the roommate can’t be there for a date they’re supposed to have. He has an emergency to deal with — a death in the family, a last-minute pinball competition at the pizza place, what have you. My father answers her knock with as much grace and charm as he can muster. "Hello," he says. "Are you here to see Bob?" "Yes," she says, stepping cautiously over the threshold. "He isn’t here," my father says. "He had to go to a funeral/pinball semi-final/what-have-you." My mother: "Oh." Of course, she could just step back across the threshold and find another way to spend her evening. But in my version she does not. She sits on the couch, tugging her mini skirt to cover more of her nicely shaped legs. My father brings out a basket of butter crackers and wedges of cheese. They talk about politics, literature. Something. What would my parents discuss during their first conversation? Now, after thirty years of marriage, their communication isn’t even verbal; each speaks through the other’s eyes. But how did they communicate then, when they were still new? Of course, this night kicked off the ravenous affair that would become my parents’ marriage. In my version, they could not keep their eyes (or their hands) off each other. They went everywhere in each others’ company: the dining hall, where my mother sneaked my father in on her meal ticket; the library, where he tossed spitballs into her hair; the movies, where they nuzzled at the back of the room, my father attempting a hand on her thigh, my mother staring straight ahead, her arms and legs rigid.